Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge and thus attempts to answer the fundamental beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning - what it is and how we acquire it. As such, it addresses such questions as “What constitutes knowledge?” “What serves as justification of knowledge?” and “What is the source of knowledge?” (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997). Specifically, epistemological beliefs encompass a range of different aspects related to the concept of knowledge and the process of its acquisition, including:
• The certainty of knowledge: Whether knowledge is fixed, unchanging, absolute “truth” or a tentative, dynamic entity that will continue to evolve over time.
• The simplicity and structure of knowledge: Whether knowledge is a collection of discrete and isolated facts or set of complex and interrelated ideas.
• The source of knowledge: Whether knowledge comes from outside of the learner (i.e., from a teacher or an “authority” of some kind) or is derived and constructed by learners themselves.
• The criteria for determining truth: Whether an idea is accepted as true when it is communicated by an expert or when it is logically evaluated based on available evidence.
• The speed of learning: Whether knowledge acquired quickly if at all (in which case people either know something or they don’t, in an all-or-nothing fashion) or is acquired gradually over a period of time (in which case people can partially know something)
• The nature of learning ability: Whether people’s ability to learn is fixed at birth (i.e., inherited) or can improve over time with practice and use of better strategies (Ormrod, 2004, p. 347).
Not only do epistemological belief systems influence the overall broad cultural and scientific assumptions about learning, they also affect the individual learner’s experience of studying and acquiring knowledge. Hofer and Pintrich (1997) argue that beliefs about learning are precursors to beliefs about knowing. Other research has shown that these beliefs about the nature of knowledge may influence comprehension (Schommer, 1990), cognitive processing (Kardash & Howell, 2000), and conceptual learning (Qian & Alvermann, 2000). The learner’s fundamental perspective on the core elements of knowledge and learning will direct the manner in which learning tasks are approached and the judgment of what constitutes success in an intellectual endeavor.
Regarding the certainty of knowledge, if learners embrace the belief that the knowledge of a particular field of study is absolute and unchanging, they will approach learning as a simple task of acquiring the elements of that fixed knowledge set through exercises that facilitate memorization. From this orientation, problem solving and decision-making are definitive processes based on a finite information pool. In contrast, if the learners instead view the knowledge of a discipline as fluid and evolving, they will most likely engage in more participative learning, including questioning, debating and active experimentation. As such, they will see their role as potentially contributing to the body of knowledge in the field rather than as a passive recipient thereof. While pursuing knowledge, these learners will also possess a healthy tolerance for ambiguity and view the topic as relatively open-ended, thus remaining receptive to new insights rather than stagnating in a particular belief set. This difference in approach is manifested, for example, in the difference between reporting on a topic, such as in a review of the literature, and an actual research study whereby the learner attempts to take the accumulated knowledge of the field one step farther by exploring a new aspect of a phenomenon.
With regard to the simplicity and structure of knowledge, learners with differing beliefs will approach the depth of learning differently. Those that hold that learning is the simple accumulation of discrete facts will process this set of knowledge at a more superficial level, believing that the understanding and retention of these separate facts represents comprehensive learning. The facts will be studied independently with emphasis placed on the accumulation of the separate facts.
Epistemological beliefs about the source of knowledge are related to the learners’ views on the relevance of subjective versus objective experience, as it pertains to general and /or universal knowledge. Learners who value the knowledge of experts may tend to be passive recipients of knowledge while discounting personal experience or individual understanding, especially when it contradicts the generally accepted notions. Conversely, learners who embrace the constructivist perspective hold their subjective experiences paramount in their understanding of phenomena. Again, this difference in approach to knowledge manifests as learning separate facts and information as presented by others, or, in contrast as personalizing the learning experience, actively participating in activities and acknowledging the relevance of the learner in the learning process.
Relatedly, the beliefs about the criteria for determining truth encompass the degree to which learners value the information based on the reliability of the source or based on their own objective evaluation of the evidence. Again, learners who value their conclusions about reality based on the evidence available to them, view themselves as more active participants in the quest for truth, than do those that unequivocally accept the conclusions of others. Inherent in this perspective is the caveat that with increased cognitive autonomy comes increased responsibility. Learners who believe that the truth is best derived from a logical evaluation of the facts accept the obligation to conduct unbiased examination and engage in rigorous critical thinking in the pursuit of truth. Those who rely on the truth as relayed by experts ask “What?” while those who pursue truth through their own analysis ask “Why?” and “How?” Referring back to the aforementioned history example, learners may defer to the commentaries of historians or political critics for an interpretation of historical events. Or, conversely, they may seek to understand the various aspects of the situation and, after evaluating these factors, develop their own interpretation of the event.
Beliefs about the speed of learning influence learners’ approach to the learning task and whether or not learners continually pursue knowledge. Learners who believe in an all-or-nothing approach tend to hold firm to their initial learning experience, albeit limited and cursory, while those who believe in the more gradual acquisition of knowledge tend to review and revisit previously learned material. Those learners adhering to the latter philosophy believe in lifelong learning through repeated effort, whereby learning new material can alter the interpretation of previously learned material. Additionally, they value currency and understand that often learning occurs in layers that grow more complex and sophisticated as a topic is explored again with a new perspective or in relation to subsequent learning.
Regarding the nature of learning ability, perspectives tend to center around the proverbial nature to a nurture debate. These beliefs greatly influence the degree to which an individual actively pursues knowledge. Learners who believe primarily in heredity as the ultimate determining factor of a relatively fixed level of intelligence and learning ability are less likely to actively engage in learning strategies, especially with regard to a challenging topic, than those who believe that environment or experience is the paramount determinant of learning ability. The latter group will believe more strongly that more effective learning strategies can be practiced and improved upon and thus be more motivated to participate in such activities.
Although presented above as oppositional dichotomies, these epistemological philosophies exist on a continuum, whereby individuals exhibit beliefs along the range between the poles. Additionally, these perspectives can change and evolve as learners develop cognitively, learn more about a subject matter or have an opportunity to relate the knowledge to their own subjective experience. Research has indicated that epistemological beliefs vary in multiplicity, generality and independence over time (Ormrod, 2004). Specifically, while early epistemological beliefs are relatively undifferentiated, children gradually begin to differentiate among the aforementioned aspects of knowledge (i.e., certainty, source, structure). This differentiation constitutes the development of a personal theory of epistemology and represents a life-long recursive process of revisiting, revising and honing these beliefs.
References
Hofer, B. K. & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67, 88-140.
Ormrod, J. E. (2004). Human learning (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Qian, G., & Alvermann, D. (2000). Relationship between epistemological beliefs and conceptual change learning. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 16, 59–74.
Schommer, M. (1990). Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 498–504.