Adolescence represents an inner emotional upheaval, a struggle between the eternal human wish to cling to the past and the equally powerful wish to get on with the future. - Louise J. Kaplan
The formation of identity is one of the major tasks of the adolescent period of development. This evolution of a sense of self is comprised of numerous aspects of character and is influenced by numerous internal and external cues, events and circumstances. Researchers debate about the relative importance of the various factors, but all concur that it is a complex interaction of forces, acting and reacting, that helps adolescents formulate who they are and how they fit into the world around them (Santorck, 2002).
Family
The family figures as a prominent influence throughout the life cycle of an individual. During adolescence, the role of parents turns a significant corner. The focus upon fostering independence and thinking for oneself becomes paramount as parents begin to prepare their children for life as an adult.
Parenting styles can have a significant impact upon the development of adolescent identity. Research indicates that democratic parenting during this developmental phase fosters identity achievement, autocratic parenting fosters identity foreclosure and permissive parenting fosters identity confusion (Enright, Lapsley, Dricas & Fehr, 1980). Of these categories, the status of identity achievement represents the most successful mastery of the crisis of this life stage, including struggling with decisions between alternative and achieving a solid commitment to a general construction of lifestyle. Identity foreclosure and identity diffusion represent situations where the adolescent has not mastered the full experience of choices and commitment and thus is less grounded in a solid identity (Marcia, 1994). Thus, the balance of guidance and freedom within boundaries is of major importance in the parenting of adolescents.
Additional research points to the importance of balance between individuality and connectedness (Cooper & Grotevant, 1989). While much of adolescence focuses on the expression of individuality and separateness, it is only with a solid connectedness to a nurturing family that this can truly flourish. Adolescent identity is enhanced when a balance of these factors exists within the supportive family environment.
Culture & Ethnicity
Various theorists (Bat-Chava, Allen, Aber, & Seidman, 1997; Kurtz, Cantu & Phinney, 1996; Phinney, 2000; Spencer & Dornbusch, 1990; Swanson, Spencer & Peterson, 1998) have maintained that the identity formation stage of adolescent socioemotional development usually represents the first serious contemplation of cultural/ethnic aspects of the self. Developmental psychologist Erickson highlighted the significant challenges encountered by adolescents from cultural and ethnic minorities as they struggle with identity formation. He acknowledged that these adolescents, while facing the normal trials of identity development, must also balance the competing tasks of maintaining their unique cultural identities while also assimilating with the dominant culture of their environment (Erikson, 1968).
Since adolescents absorb information about their roles and character from their surrounding culture and environment, ethnic minority adolescents may find themselves confronted with conflicting or incongruent messages – those from their individual ethnic group and those from the dominant culture. Furthermore, some ethnic minority adolescents find themselves faced with additional issues of racism, discrimination, poverty and/or environments where they are exposed to broken families, drugs, gangs, violence or criminal activity. These less-than-nurturing circumstances do not provide adequate experiences, role models or social support networks to facilitate the successful development of a strong and positive identity.
Gender
The changing social climate of the recent past has resulted in substantial shifts in the perception of traditional gender identity and roles, thus impacting the development of adolescents coming of age in this era. Early theorists (Erikson, 1968) reported observed differences in life aspirations – specifically, males being focused on career goals and females being focused on home and family goals. Given the increased incidence of both women in the workplace and men contributing on the home front, these differences have decreased significantly. This attests to the extensive role social context plays in influencing identity development. However, many researchers still argue that the complex process of identity formation differs considerably in males versus females, particularly in terms of timing and order of stages and integration of various roles (Gilligan, 1990; Rogers, 1987; Archer, 1994).
References
Archer, S. L. (Ed.). (1994). Intervention for adolescent identity development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Bat-Chava, Y., Allen, L., Aber, J. L. & Steidman, E. (1997, April). Racial and ethnic identity and the contexts of development. Paper presented at the meeting for the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.
Cooper, C. R. & Grotevant, H. D. (1989, April). Individuality and connectedness in the family and adolescent’s self and relational competence. Paper presented at the meeting for the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City, MI.
Enright, R. D., Lapsley, D. K., Dricas, A. S., & Fehr, L. A. (1980). Parental influence on the development of adolescent autonomy and identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 529-546.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Gilligan, C. (1990). Teaching Shakespeare’s sister. In C. Gilligan, N. Lyons & T. Hammer (Eds.). Making connections: The relational worlds of adolescent girls at Emme Willard School. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kurtz, D. A., Cantu, C. L. & Phinney, J. S. (1996, March). Group identities as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Paper presented at the meeting for the Society for Research on Adolescence, Boston, MA.
Marcia, J. E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H. A. Bosma, T. L. G. Graafsma. H. D. Grotevant & D. J. De Levita, (Eds). Identity and development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Phinney, J. (2000). Ethnic identity. In A. Kadzin (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington, DC and New York: American Psychological Association and Oxford University Press.
Rogers, A. (1987). Questions of gender differences: Ego development and moral voice in adolescence. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Education, Harvard University.
Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life-span development, 8e. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Spencer, M. B. & Dornbusch, S. M. (1990). Challenges in studying minority youth. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliot (Eds.). At the threshold: The developing adolescent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Swanson, D. P., Spencer, M. B. & Peterson, A. C. (1998). Identity formation in adolescence. In K. Borman & B. Schneider (Eds.). The adolescent years: Social influence and educational challenges. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.